Standard And Non Standard Dialect English Language Essay

Standard And Non Standard Dialect English Language Essay INTRODUCTION Linguists would define language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication which may consist of several dialects. Here, dialect is a variety of a certain language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), whose difference can be encountered in some words, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language. Dialects and their uniqueness in the application have been the sole point of discussion in sociolinguistics, attracting many linguists to learn about them deeply. Indonesia, as the parameter in this paper, consists of many ethnics and cultures with their own unique languages, thus it is likely that Indonesia possesses many local languages. Nonetheless, Bahasa Indonesia is claimed to be a national language that is expected to be a means to unite all citizens despite their different cultural background. In this case, although each region has its own local language, which is distinct and not just a dialect, virtually everyone now speaks Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian Language). In order to unify such a diverse nation, a common language is clearly needed. The phenomenon of dialects along with its variants is the main concern in this paper. THEORITICAL VIEW According to Francis (1992) and Romaine (1994) dialects are the variants or varieties of a language used by different speakers who are separated by geographic or social boundaries. Furthermore, Einer Haugen, as quoted in Hudson (1996) states that English made no distinction between language and dialect, but when the Renaissance period, the term dialect was borrowed from Greek, and it refers to the distinct varieties used in classical Greek in relation to different area and kind of literature. If we look further into a smaller scope of language in Indonesia, every local language will have its own regional dialects. Even within a geographical area which is not very wide, still there is probability that a local language varies. As a consequence, each regional dialect will also have their standard dialect used by the members of that particular regional area. Furthermore, Chambers and Trudgill (1998), quoted in Hudson (2000) stated that a dialect is popularly considered to be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"a sub-standard, low status, often rustic form of a language, lacking in prestige.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Meanwhile standard dialect is used within the area and might not be understood by people coming from outside of the area. A standard language (also standard dialect, standardized dialect) is a particular variety of a language that is considered to be prestigious within a speech community. The standard will usually be institutionalized, often by being given legal status, and then used as the norm in mass media, education, and other social institutions. DISCUSSION The explanation above grants us view that standard dialect is different with non-standard dialect which is called regional dialect. We can see the differences between them in terms of their function as well as the area where they are applied. Related with its function, standard dialect will be used universally and usually known by the whole user of the regional dialects of the same language. In regard to the area, the standard dialect is known and widely used by every person in a particularly wide area where that language being used meanwhile the non-standard dialects or regional dialects is the dialect that is used in a relatively smaller area. Here, commonly, local language shows from which province/area we come from and regional dialects shows from which area in certain province we come from. It means that standard dialect has a wider range than non-standard dialects. As one of the local language in Indonesia, Balinese language can be a good example in describing the varieties of dialects in certain area in Indonesia. Balinese language is the official language for Balinese community which is used at any formal situation in the Balinese society such as community meeting, wedding ceremony, priest speech at the temple etc. There are some dialects of Balinese language in Bali, usually based on the regency where it is spoken, so commonly there is Gianyar dialect, Bangli dialect, Tabanan dialect, Negara dialect and so on. However, no matter what dialect it is, the language,in this case Balinese Language basically is the same both in terms of grammar and syntax. They are just slightly different in the tone/rhythm, pronunciation, and few vocabularies. Most importantly, Balinese people speaking different dialects can still understand each other at the very least. Compared some Balinese words such as : Tuba = poison, Bubu = basket fish trap, Pedau = boat, Layar = sail, Talas = Taro, Ubi = Yam, Tebu = sugar cane, Nyuh = coconut, Lemo = citrus, Pandan = pandanus, Buah = areca. Among those smaller groups of languages further variations or dialect can be still found especially the level of morphemic construction and phonemes. It is interesting to find that beside various dialects that exist in Balinese language, there is also the difference in intonation. The group of intonation does not necessarily bring into one as a unit of dialect. In the future with the presence of modern communication means as an interface of human being, this intonation and dialects will move toward homogenous elements. So, the dialects among Balinese people are mostly similar in grammatical aspect but are different in term of intonation, vocabularies and accent. The nature of the existence of cultural dialect is not aimed to give limitation to the freedom of expression, apparently it is to give view that expressions may differ across cultural groups. The standardized expressions served as a control for the perceiver effects discussed above such as greater motivation or preference for oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s own perceived ethnic group, stereotypes about the likely emotions experienced by different groups, and decoding rules which should all be equal when judging these two sets of expressions. For these reasons, we argue that regional dialects may vary in their impact across emotions. However, although there are several aspects that differentiate those regional dialects in certain local language, we cannot absolutely determine exactly which dialect belong to certain area, or which vocabularies or intonation belong to certain dialect, etc. The line between them is not clear and the most critical standards of differentiating them rely on the social facts as well as the linguistic facts itself. As what is explained above, sometimes when the people with different dialect (although with the same standard language) meet each other, they can feel strange, funny or the worst they cannot understand the meaning of certain statement used by their partner. This is how dialects are being evaluated within the social community. There is no such term better or best dialect, there is only the feeling of being accustomed and not accustomed to a certain dialcet. For example, Balinese language. When Tabanan people with Tabanan dialect talk each other, they can understand each other and the conversation goes well as usual. But when Tabanan people meet Singaraja people that also have their own dialect, there will be something unusual. Tabanan people may feel strange or even funny because the different with their own dialect, but the same thing will happen with Singaraja people, too. So, these dialects which are different from one area to another area in Bali, can be such a characteristic of t hat area that can help the people from another area identify where they come from. The point here is that every people have to respect each other in terms of dialect use. They can have different dialect but, to make the conversation safe, they can use the standard dialect. So, everything about dialect itself is evaluated by the community in which, there is no absolute decision about this evaluation because everyone can have their own evaluation about these dialects. The people who use dialect itself are the social community where that dialect exists. As a matter of fact, any dialect will not last unless the community uses it. Here, the language will be formed based on the culture in that area and becomes tradition from one generation to the next. These dialects usually can be learnt by the community through the daily conversation. For those, who become native speaker of that dialect, it can be formed and acquired naturally because their environment. Furthermore, for those who are not native speakers of that dialect, this dialect also can be learnt through a frequent use of dialect itself. For example the one who firstly used Gianyar dialect, but because he/she lives in Singaraja for a long time and usually make interactions and conversations with Singarajaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s people, he/she can use Singaraja dialect also. He/she will automatically follow the dominating dialect because that is the dialect in his/her new environment. CONCLUSION In conclusion, language as a means of communication might be found varied. The variation is known as dialects, whose differences comprise intonation, pronunciation, as well as vocabulary. The dialects within the society exist in two forms namely the standard and non standard dialect. Both of the variants share one thing in common, that is they are of the same language. However, the differences between them are that standardized dialect is considered to be more prestigious, and is applied in wider area compared with the non standard dialect. Dialects are acquired through the daily conversation, through other people who are involved in a talk. Thus, any dialect that has ever been created should be kept in use in order for the dialect itself not to be perished.

Power of Choice Revealed in Robert Frosts The Road Not Taken :: Road Not Taken essays

The Power of Choice Revealed in The Road Not Taken      Ã‚  Ã‚  Frost's flare for using nature to and man's interaction with it to relate powerful philosophical messages are expressed in his renownd poem, "The Road Not Taken". "The Road Not Taken" by Robert Frost is a very powerful poem with one basic philosophical theme: individuality comes down to being able to choose between the popular choice or societal norms and a choice less explored. In other words, the central meaning of this poem is that one should not make a decision because it reflects popular opinion-one should make sound choices because of their benefits to the individual-because choosing unique alternative could make all the difference. What does Frost mean by the "road less traveled by (19)"? Much of the poem suggests that Frost's use of the word "road" is metaphorical and not literal. "Road" as used by Frost refers to a decision or a choice. However, by using the literal application of roads, Frost shows that deciding which road to take will determine the outcome of one's journey, much like a decision will determine the outcome of one's goals and aspirations. Frost chooses to the take the road that "was grassy and wanted wear" (8). Why? Clearly, like a unique idea, the less traveled road may lead to a different sense of realization where only few men have been. Thus, the "road less traveled by" clearly speaks of Frost's personal endeavor to be different or unique. He did not want to follow in the footsteps of conformity; this is why he takes the road less traveled by. Frost alludes to the fact that a traveler cannot take two roads at the same time-he/she must choose between the two. The main reason for making this assertion is to show that we cannot abide by two decisions about a particular goal in our life at the same time. Consequently, we must weigh our decisions carefully. Note Frost says "I took the one less traveled by, / And that has made all the difference" (19-20). What does this say about how we should make our decision? Clearly, this infers that we should not make our decisions based on popular opinions. In other words, we should not make a decision because it works for everyone else; we should make a decision because it is right for our circumstance -- because it could make all the difference.

Suicide and Adolescent Psychology

Adolescent Psychology is a difficult specialty within the field. Many of the normal phases of adolescent development look like pathologies, and perhaps would be classified as such if the patients were adults. Thus, it is difficult, even for a trained professional, to tell the difference between a true pathology, and a â€Å"normal† mood or personality pattern associated with adolescent development.An area where this deficiency can lead to grave circumstances is the realm of adolescent depression and suicide. Although true suicidal tendencies can be difficult to spot in adolescent behavior, timely identification and proper treatment are important goals of Adolescent psychologists. Although causal theories differ, the treatment of teen suicide attempts and depression is fairly consistent across adolescent theorists.Typical symptomology of suicidal tendencies in adults has several features. (Symptoms†¦2007) The underlying psychological cause of such ideations is usually depr ession. (Symptoms†¦2007) Symptoms of depression include sleeping pattern disruptions, feelings of low self-worth, loss of interest in pleasurable activities and lack of energy.(Symptoms†¦2007) One of the key indicators that a depressed adult is contemplating suicide is self-report. (Symptoms†¦2007) Often, adults are not treated for suicidal depression until after they had made an attempt on their own life. (Symptoms†¦2007)   Treatment for long-term depression in adults typically consists of medication and extensive therapy. (Symptoms†¦2007)They type and length of therapy is contingent on many factors. (Symptoms†¦2007) These include the specialty of the therapist, the diagnosed underlying condition, and the severity of the depressive state. Similarly, the medical regime for adults with suicidal depression varies as a function of the underlying psychological cause for the depression. (Symptoms†¦2007)Typical depressive mood disorders are treated wit h anti-depressants, while personality or perception disorders, which can lead to a secondary depressive condition, are better treated with medication targeted to the underlying disorder. (Symptoms†¦2007)As complicated as the diagnosis and treatment of suicidal depression is in adults, it is even more so in the adolescent population. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   Suicide is the third-most common cause of death among individuals between the ages of fifteen and twenty-four. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)  There are large gender differences in accounting for teen suicide, but they are explained more by the methods used, than any particular predilection toward the act. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   83% of adolescent suicides are males, whereas females make more attempts at suicide.(Teen Suicide†¦2005)   The discrepancy can be explained by the fact that males are far more likely to use a gun in their attempts, while the method of choice for females is pills. (Teen Suicide†¦2 005)   Of the two, the chances for success are much higher among those who use a gun. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)  According to the National institute of Mental health, successful suicides among adolescents number about 8 in 100,000. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)     Attempts at suicide are estimated to be much higher. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)The National Youth Violence Prevention Resource center found that about one in five teens think about suicide, one in six have actually planned for it, and one in twelve had attempted suicide in the past year(Teen Suicide†¦2005)   . As is the case with adults, most (about 90%) of adolescent suicide victims have an underlying mental disorder. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)One moder theory of suicide in adolescence is espoused by Dr. David Elkind. He posits that there is a gap between physical and psychological development, which causes stress in the adolescent. (Elkind, 1998) Dr. Elkind theorizes that teenagers, who are often treated as adu lts at home and in schools, are not as complete in their psychological development as they are in their physical development.(Elkind, 1998) This results, opines Dr. Elkind in a stressful dissonance that can lead to suicidal ideation. (Elkind, 1998)   Additionally, exposing an adolescent to adult-type stressors, such as deadlines, appointments and specific goal-driven activities can cause stress. (Elkind, 1998)   This stress can lead to depression and suicide. (Elkind, 1998)On the other side of the coin, Dr. Elkind believes that over scheduling a young child may leave him or her bored when the structure surrounding the child disappears in their teen years. (Elkind, 1998) This subsequent lack of direction can also lead to depression. (Elkind, 1998)This theory suggests a preventative viewpoint on teen suicide. (Elkind, 1998)   Once an adolescent articulates a desire for suicide, or makes the attempt, Dr. Elkind recommends the standard psychological treatment, and medication, if w arranted. (Elkind, 1998)A more environmental viewpoint is espoused by Dr. Bronfenbrenner. (Paquette & Ryan, n.d.)   He views human development as an interaction between individuals and a system of bioecological systems. (Paquette & Ryan, n.d.) He views any psychopathology, including teen depression or suicide as a dysfunction whose development is engendered by deficiencies in the mesosystem (immediate social surroundings) of the individual.(Paquette & Ryan, n.d.) This approach to development does not lend itself particularly well to the treatment phase of suicide in adolescents, rather, it offers a socially-constructed theory for the phenomenon. (Paquette & Ryan, n.d.)Preventative â€Å"treatment† in this paradigm would consist of fostering a healthy, positive mesosystem around the individual, so that they might develop in a psychologically healthy manner. Again, one is forced to conclude that an already-depressed or suicidal teen would be best served by therapy and possibl e pharmaceutical remedies. (Paquette & Ryan, n.d.)A more cognitive approach to adolescent behavior is espoused by Dr. Robert Selman. (Selman’s†¦2002) His theories, which are derived from those of Piaget, rely on modeling and other cognitive methods to explain behavior. (Selman’s†¦2002)As such, he would explain the phenomenon of adolescent suicide as a response to a social context where such behavior is observed to have a positive outcome. (Selman’s†¦2002) Rarely would the cues be direct, but cultural stimuli such as music, television, and movies could inadvertently (or blatantly) glamorize the practice of suicide, and compel an adolescent, especially one who already suffers from depression or some other psychological ailment to attempt suicide. (Selman’s†¦2002)  Of these theories, the one whose suggested treatment appears to be most effective is Selman’s. Cognitive therapy has been found to decrease repeated suicide attempts b y 50%. (Asher, 2005) While this particular study focused on adults, there is little reason to think that the results would be demonstrably different with adolescents.(Asher, 2005) Interestingly, the same cannot be said of pharmaceutical treatment options. (DeNoon, 2002) It has been shown that teens who take antidepressants actually have an increased rate of suicide than those who do not. (DeNoon, 2002) Recent evidence suggests, however, that the same studies prove that the conclusion drawn from the data was erroneous, as the scientists failed to control for other variables such as severity of the depression, and other factors.(DeNoon, 2002)   Despite these conflicting findings, or perhaps because of them, a therapist should be cautious about â€Å"throwing drugs at the problem† and dismissing a patient with a prescription. (DeNoon, 2002)   In addition to the pitfalls of possible adverse effects of the drugs themselves, this kind of treatment is far more vulnerable to nega tive outcomes hinged on misdiagnosis.(DeNoon, 2002)   If a closely monitored patient is found to have another type of disorder, to which depression is merely a secondary characteristic, that therapist can make the appropriate pharmacological and therapeutic revisions. (DeNoon, 2002)   If, on the other hand, an underlying condition is missed, and the patient dismissed with antidepressants, the results could be tragic. (DeNoon, 2002)Owing to the nature of serotonin-stimulating drugs, which most antidepressants are, an effect of a non-depressed person taking this medication is the onset of severe depression. (DeNoon, 2002)   This would result in the therapist causing the very symptoms he or she is attempting to relieve. (DeNoon, 2002)The main commonality of all of these perspectives is the need to monitor closely the disposition of the patient. The only way to differentiate true depression from a phasic anomaly of normal adolescent development is to observe the behavior and respo nses over a long period of time.For example, behavior that might be characterized as bipolar, buts of high energy and enthusiasm contrasted with lethargy and depression may be the normal reaction to hormone development in an adolescent. Without context, it is almost impossible to tell the difference Thus, the best preventative measure would be to treat any suicidal ideation as a serious symptom and have a therapist interact for a long period with the adolescent. ReferencesAsher, J. (2005). â€Å"Cognitive Therapy Reduces Repeat Suicide Attempts by 50 Percent.† Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from The National Institutes of Health (NIH) website: http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2005/nimh-02a.htm  DeNoon, D. (2002) â€Å"Teen Suicide, Antidepressant Link Questioned.† Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from WebMD website:http://www.webmd.com/depression/news/20041215/teen-suicide-antidepressant-link-questionedElkind, D. (1998) All Grown Up and No Place To Go. Peresus Publishing, Cam bridge, MA. Pp. 1-290.Paquette, D. & Ryan, J. (n.d.) â€Å"Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.† Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from National-Louis University website:http://pt3.nl.edu/paquetteryanwebquest.pdfâ€Å"Selman's Five Stages of Perspective Taking,† (2002) Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from Everything-2 website:http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1275038â€Å"Symptoms of Depression†. (2007) retrieved October 28th, 2008 from Psychology 24Ãâ€"7 website:http://www.psychiatry24x7.com/bgdisplay.jhtml?itemname=depression_symptomsâ€Å"Teen Suicide Statistics.† (2005) retrieved October 28th, 2008 from Teen Depression website: http://www.teendepression.org/articles1.html

Government Intervention and the Causes of the Great...

The economic business cycle of the world is its own living and breathing entity expanding and contracting with imprecise balances involving supply and demand. The expansions and contractions also known as booms and recessions support a delicate equilibrium of checks and balances, employment and unemployment. The year 1929 marked the beginning of the downward spiral of this delicate economic balance known as The Great Depression of the United States of America. The Great Depression is by far the most significant economic event that occurred during the twentieth century making other depressions pale in comparison. As a result, it placed the world’s political and economic systems into a complete loss of credibility. What transforms an†¦show more content†¦The economists who believed in the predominate state blamed the free market and the free marketers blamed the government for involving policy in an economic issue. Whatever theory one chooses to follow it is imper ative to comprehend the various factors that caused the Great Depression in order to avoid the past from repeating itself through poor economic judgment. Bank Failures The first cause of the Great Depression under scrutiny is the analysis of the bank failures that occurred leading up to the depression. During its early stages, any bank that had a loan out to a stock market investor placed itself at a large risk. This coupled with bank runs, which are the liquidation of funds by bank members en masse, continued to make matters worse even for the stronger financial institutions. The government led by President Hoover decided to allow contraction to fall on profits instead of dividends as part of his monetary policy. The nation’s firms followed this advice resulting in an initial drop in corporate profits. This drop created a â€Å"domino effect† resulting in plummeting firm securities, which manifested the decay of bank portfolios. 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